Martin Luther And His 95 Theses

Martin Luther And His 95 Theses Nailed to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg on October 31, 1517 on the eve of All Saints Day (according to Philip Melanchton, Luthers colleague in Wittenberg University), Martin Luthers 95 theses paved the way for the birth of a great spiritual movement called the Protestant Reformation. The Reformation ultimately signaled the end of the Medieval Age and the inauguration of modern times. What Luther intended to be a set of propositional statements to be debated upon over the abuses associated with the sale of the indulgences very soon became the key that unlocked the door towards the long-awaited reformation of the church of the late Medieval Christendom. The Sale of the Indulgences The doctrine of indulgences is peculiar to the Roman Catholic Church, unknown to the church fathers, and most importantly, to the apostles of Christ. It is basically defined as a certificate of forgiveness granted by a bishop or an archbishop within his diocese for the remission of the temporal punishment of sin both on earth and in purgatory, the alleged source of which was the surplus of merit and grace accumulated through the lives of Christ, the Virgin Mary and the saints of the Church. What most particularly attracted Luthers attention in this regard was the extravagant preaching associated with the sale of the indulgences in Germany by a Dominican friar Johann Tetzel. Tetzel was commissioned by Albrecht, Archbishop of Mainz and Magdeburg, to raise funds for the rebuilding of Saint Peters Basilica in Rome. As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, Tetzel proclaimed, the soul from purgatory springs. Luthers long quest for truth that resulted in his discovery of the biblical doctrine of justification by faith alone must have been the reason why he indignantly reacted to such a deceptive message that offered false hopes to those who bought the indulgences for themselves and their departed loved ones on account of their ignorance of the true gospel of Christ. The 97 Theses Before the 95 Theses Convinced that he must challenge the traditional views purported by the Roman Catholic Church for centuries, he published a set of 97 theses to be debated in an academic setting among his colleagues at Wittenberg University. The theses attacked many of the major tenets of the Church with a clear message in mind: that the gospel was entirely different from what had been commonly held. Luther expected the theses to cause a stir among the participants which in turn would allow him to divulge his great discovery. To his disappointment, they only mustered little interest. Martin Luther and His 95 Theses Despite such a cold response to his 97 theses, Luther composed another set of theses which he called The Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of the Indulgences, now popularly known as the 95 theses. Like the 97 theses, this new set of theses was also meant to provoke academic discussion among his colleagues in the university. They may have been an afterthought to a letter he sent to Albrecht through which he aired his disagreement on the sale of the indulgences. However, scholars are divided whether the Luther of the 95 theses was still a Roman Catholic clergyman at this time or already a Protestant Reformer. On the one hand, Luther appeared to have thought Pope Leo X was on his side in this matter. Some scholars even suggest (probably following the church historian Philip Schaff) that he was not protesting against the indulgences, but only against its abuse. On the other hand, a closer look at the document would reveal one thing for sure: what Luther was up against was not simply the sale of the indulgences but its theological underpinnings. As Princeton theologian Benjamin Warfield puts it, They constitute, in point of fact, a theological document of the first importance, working out a complete and closely knit argument against, not the abuses of the indulgence traffic, and not even the theory of indulgences, merely, but the whole sacerdotal conception of the saving process an outgrowth and embodiment of which indulgences were. While there may be apparent remainders of Roman Catholicism in the theses, they nonetheless assert the evangelical Protestant doctrine of salvation that refuted the sacerdotal system that was largely built on tradition instead of the Bible. In summary, the 95 theses proclaimed that indulgences cannot remit guilt as such a work belongs to God alone, that they are unable to make souls spring from the Purgatory, and that the truly repentant sinner has already received the forgiveness of God and is justified by faith alone. Sources: Gonzalez, Justo. The Story of Christianity Volume 2. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers, 1985. Schaff, Phillip. History of the Christian Church Volume VII. Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc., 1997. Warfield, Benjamin Breckenridge. The Ninety-Five Theses in Their Theological Significance. The Princeton Theological Review, xv. 1917, pp. 501-529. Copyright Edwin Vargas. Contact the author to obtain permission for republication.

United States Attack And Ballistic Nuclear Submarines :: essays papers

United States Attack And Ballistic Nuclear Submarines The United States Navy has developed over the years to form one of the world's most powerful forces. The nuclear submarine is one of the major components responsible for achieving this status. The nuclear submarines have evolved over time in: design, construction, and weapons to become the most feared deterrence force ever. Tom Clancy, a well-known author and naval expert describes nuclear attack submarines (SSN&rsquos) in an excellent fashion by commenting: The modern SSN is a stealth platform with 70 percent of the worlds surface under which to hide, its endurance determined not by fuel but by the amount of food that may be crammed into the hull, and its operational limitations determined more by the skill of the commander and crew than by external factors. (XIX) Clancy also gives the complete story of nuclear submarines from the beginning. The idea of nuclear energy to power navy submarines came from an improbable origin; a United States naval officer named Hyman G. Rickover. After World War II, Rickover was transferred to the engineering department of the United States Navy. While there, he was responsible for envisioning the idea of placing small nuclear reactors in submarines and surface ships. With these reactors, vessels could travel great distances without having to replenish the their fuel supply. Most importantly for submarines, it would now allow them to stay submerged for longer periods of times instead of having to come to the surface to give air to then diesel engines (Clancy 10). According to Clancy, Rickover&rsquos main focus was submarines. In the early 1950&rsquos, a contract was signed for the production of the first nuclear submarine in the world. The boat was to be named the USS Nautilus (SSN-571) and built by Electric Boat Division of General Dynamics. The nuclear reactor in the Nautilus generated steam for the turbines as a result of pressurized water. This development was far more promising than the now Admiral Rickover and the Navy had ever dreamed (Clancy 10-11). Dalgleish and Schweikart include that when the boat was launched in 1954, it passed both performance and technological barriers. Being similar to submarines developed after 1944, the boat&rsquos speed was greater underwater than above, it did not have surface often to replenish batteries, and could remain underwater for a length of sixty days. The Nautilus became the first ever vessel to travel the Arctic from the Pacific to the Atlantic. While initiating an entirely new dimension for submarine operations, it was the first submarine to arrive at the North Pole (Dalgleish and Schweikart 6). A web site dedicated to United States submarines gives statistics about

Management in Organisation Essay

A NEW DIRECTION FOR THE UPSTAGE THEATRE The board of the Upstage Theatre Company had assembled to hear the Artistic Director’s proposals for the following year’s season. Mark Buck, the Artistic Director, had built a reputation on his staging of popular comic seasons, and most members of the board expected a similar proposal this year. Buck entered the boardroom, and after a few general remarks, began to speak about his plans for the season. As he spoke, the board members began to look at each other with astonishment. Buck was proposing a radical departure with a Shakespearean tragedy and working up to a piece by Arthur Miller. At the end of this totally unexpected proposal he looked around at his audience. ‘Any questions’ he asked rather blandly, while privately enjoying the obvious bewilderment on the part of the board. He loved surprising people! Jean Carlisle, the chair of the board, was the only one not surprised by the proposal, as Buck had approached her several weeks ago and dropped some hints about his idea. Buck, she had a shrewd suspicion, was out primarily to promote his own career. Known as a ‘comedy man’ first and foremost, he was in danger of being typecast within the industry. Only by rounding out his production experience could he hope to progress. Carlisle, however, could see a lot of possibilities in the proposal for a ‘serious’ season, even though she knew it would be dismissed as foolhardy by a number of the established board members. Her involvement with the Upstage Theatre was based on a sincere commitment to the cultural development of the community. Lately, she had been coming under some fire from her family and friends for not urging that more ‘culturally significant’ work be performed by the Theatre. When she had first heard of Buck’s proposal, she had decided to support it and had accordingly begun to consider how best to get the board to support it as well. Now she turned to Robert Ramsay, a board member who had been brought in for his connections with the business community. ‘Well, Robert, it’s an interesting proposal we have in front of us,’ she said. ‘What do you think?’ Ramsay, she happened to know, had been considerably embarrassed in front of the board recently, as a result of his inability to raise money for the Theatre. She also knew that much of the resistance to the corporate support of the Theatre had come from the fact that its plays were not considered serious enough. Thus, Ramsay, she reasoned, would support the departure proposed by Buck. This was indeed the case. ‘I think it’s a marvellous idea. And I’m sure it’s the kind of season the financial community would support’ said Ramsay. Several others on the board protested strongly against the proposed season. The most vociferous of these was Olaf Vickers, a local playwright of some repute. Vickers had had several of his comedy works performed by the Upstage Theatre Company over the years. The argument presented by Buck, Carlisle, and Ramsay managed to quiet these objections, however, at least to the point where the board voted to examine the marketing and financial implications of the proposal and meet again in two weeks’ time. When the board met again, a month later, the battle lines were more clearly drawn. Olaf Vickers spoke first. ‘I move that we dismiss the proposal for a â€Å"tragedy’ season,† he said. ‘The Theatre has always had a reputation for comic works, and this reputation should not be thrown away lightly. I feel that our artistic director should go back and rethink his proposals.’ Jean Carlisle, however, was ready with an answer. ‘I know how you feel’, she said. ‘But I think we have to consider some other factors too. For a year now our theatre has been losing money, and how long the various arts councils will go on funding us is an open question. As I told you last year, some of the government people are very concerned that we develop more in the way of box office support and outside funding. Now, as I see it, this proposal may give us a chance to do just that. I’ve asked Mark Buck to do an unofficial survey among the town’s theatre community, and I think you’ll find the results interesting.’ The artistic director now stood up. ‘We’ve been able to put together a random sample of Theatre goers from the subscription lists of other theatres in town,’ he said. ‘I had a couple of people in the administrative office phone these people and do a straw poll survey of their preferences. The results indicate that a majority would patronise a new tragedy season. So I think we can expect some box office support for this proposal.’ He sat down and amid murmurs from the board members Carlisle then asked Ramsay to address the meeting. ‘I’ve canvassed the business community,’ he said. ‘A number of corporations have indicated their interest in supporting a â€Å"serious season† here. I think it’s safe to say that we could count on fairly generous corporate support should we decide to go ahead.’ A heated debate followed these announcements. While many of the previously uncommitted board members now leaned toward acceptance of the proposed season, a significant minority, lead by Olaf Vickers, opposed it. As the by-laws required a two- thirds majority to approve a policy change, the meeting adjourned without any decision being taken. It was decided to meet again the following week to resolve the crisis, if possible. During that week, Jean Carlisle paid a visit to Olaf Vickers. After some polite discussion of theatre matters, she came to the point. ‘You know Olaf,’ she said sadly, ‘it’s rather a pity you don’t support the proposal for a ‘serious’ season.’ ‘Why’s that?’ inquired the playwright suspiciously. ‘Well’, explained Carlisle, ‘it’s just that I was talking to Buck the other day, and he wanted to commission you to write a work to wrap up the season. He says he’s sure a serious piece by you would be just the thing to cap the year.’ ‘I’m glad that at least he remembers part of the Theatre’s original mandate,’ growled Vickers. ‘After all, the Upstage is supposed to be committed to the development of new local authors.’ ‘And it’s a commitment he takes very seriously,’ replied Carlisle. ‘And, so  do I, I can assure you. That’s why if we were to go ahead with the season he suggests, I would move that your new play be commissioned immediately. I hope we can come to some agreement when we next meet,’ she added, as she rose to go. ‘Maybe,’ Vickers replied thoughtfully. At the next meeting, Vickers announced that after some thought, he had changed his Mind, and would now support the new season. Several weeks later, it was announced that as local playwright, he had been asked to write a serious work to be performed as season finale. Questions 1. What do you perceive to be the primary problem in this case? 2. Do you believe that the board has made decisions according to the rational decision making model? Why? 3. Do you think that using a group such as this one was the most effective way to make the decision? 4. What might you have done differently, in order to facilitate more effective decision making

The Dream Of The American Dream - 1799 Words

From the early stages of American literature the dream of success has always been around, even at the very beginning. It has gone on the journey of merely surviving in small amounts of the literature from the native people to thriving in a growing society and being in everything. The dream to myself is becoming wealthy and being successful in everything I do. Today I believe that the dream has become different for everyone, every person has a different dream, a different way they want their life to go. Through the stages of literature the American dream has not only evolved but it has completely changed in some aspects. The dream goes from survival in America in La Relacion to being free in America in The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano. Those pieces of literature are in the same era of Early American literature and the dream has already evolved. The American dream has slightly changed every time someone interprets it, every time someone writes down what they bel ieve the dream to be. The American dream begins in Early American Literature it is presented in Olaudah Equiano’s narrative. Equiano wanted to be a free man after being taken into slavery, although it wasn’t all kicks and giggles. Hitherto I had thought only slavery dreadful; but the state of a free negro appeared to me know equally so at least, and in some respects even worse, for they live in constant alarm for their liberty, which is but nominal. (122 Equiano). He says that the trials ofShow MoreRelatedAmerican Dreams : The American Dream1068 Words   |  5 PagesAmerican Dream? American Dream: Noun, the ideals of freedom, equality, and opportunity traditionally held to be available to every American. That is the definition of the American dream according to Dictionary.com, but the American Dream is more than a definition, but a way of life for many. Millions of immigrants come to our country in search of this â€Å"American Dream† including my grandparents but more and more are disappointed. So does the American Dream exist? Has it ever existed or has it allRead MoreAmerican Dreams And The American Dream Essay1727 Words   |  7 PagesMobility and the American Dream feed off one another, immigrants and American citizens wanting to work hard and building new inventions to make life easier. Without this American ingenuity, it might of taken the United States longer to get to where the country is now. The American Dream has helped people see all the potential that there is in the U.S. Almost all aspects of mobility relating to the American Dream are still achievable. The path to the so called American Dream might be a harder toRead MoreThe Dream Of The American Dream1047 Words   |  5 PagesThe American Dream is heralded and aspired to, by immigrants and natives alike. It is a hopeful belief, that although many believe in, very few achieve. This variability of outcomes is due to the American Dream’s dependency on ideals of equality and freedom of opportunity. These two ideals do not institutionally exist in the United States, causing its construction to be inherently unequal, as individuals cannot reach the Dream without systemic privilege and power. Social positions and historic contextRead MoreAmerican Dreams : The American Dream1187 Words   |  5 PagesThe American dream is what makes people from all around the world to want to move to America. The American dream is what makes America wonderful. The American dream has been categorized as an equal opportunity to attain success through hard work. The end result of t he American dream for the universal people is for that character and their loved ones to be living contentedly for the rest of their lives. However, this is not the same apparition that every individual has of the American dream. The AmericanRead MoreAmerican Dreams : The American Dream1663 Words   |  7 PagesThe American Dream The American Dream is indefinable. There is no one set of words or characteristics that the entire population assigns directly to its definition. With the American population consisting of people of various races, ethnicities, ages, classes, and genders, it seems trivial to even attempt to attribute a single definition to the concept of the American Dream. It is this inability however, to be confined within one single meaning, that allows for the American Dream to govern theRead MoreThe Dream Of The American Dream1178 Words   |  5 PagesThe American dream has been a beacon of hope and motivation for the millions of people who have immigrated and grown up in the United States; especially for those of the lower class. Through hard work and determination one could completely change their life for the better while provide better circumstances for future generations. The American dream is defined as, â€Å"a happy way of living that is thought of by many Americans as something that c an be achieved by anyone in the U.S. especially by workingRead MoreAmerican Dream Is Not A Dream771 Words   |  4 PagesAmerican dream is not a dream What is your own version of the American Dream? Money? Living a big house or having a nice car? I believe these are values that most of people define to them what the American Dream is. The American Dream has alway been challenging to receive happiness; but as an Americans, we had worked our way from inequality to freedom. First, immigration as one biggest puzzle in the United States. America is also refer to a melting pot. Because many different ethnic groups andRead MoreThe Dream Of The American Dream1098 Words   |  5 Pagesline â€Å"Follow your dreams!† This simple sentence has inspired many. This idea of creating a dream and chasing it has inspired the American Dream. The American Dream is different for everybody. It could be getting married, creating a business, or being a hero. It turns out the American Dream is not for everybody. There is always something standing in the way of the American Dream. Race, social status, and the individual are standing in the way between the person and the American Dream. A person s raceRead MoreAmerican Dreams And The American Dream1728 Words   |  7 PagesAmericans have been dreaming since the Mayflower arrived in the New World and the American Dream itself has withstood threats up until this very day to all of its internal characteristics: international peace, health, leadership, wealth, supremacy, and equality. H.W. Brands states in his book American Dreams that â€Å"Americans had dreamed since our national birth, and in the twenty-first century we are dreaming still†. Both Brands’ story and Nathaniel Philbrick’s account in Mayflower assist significantlyRead MoreDreams And The American Dream828 Words   |  4 PagesThe American Dream is the thought the United States had never ending chances to live ones dream no matter where one would come from. During the Great Depression, the American Dream is to own land, to rise out of one’s current situation, and to not have to worry about money. In the novel Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck, three characters have individual dreams that directly relate to the American Dream. George and Lennie want to own their own farm. He wants to not have to work 11 hour shifts and