San Vitale Church: Construction and Design

San Vitale Church: Construction and Design Byzantine Empire started when the Roman Emperor Constantine moved the capital of Roman Empire from Rome to Byzantium. Byzantine Architectures was very similar to Roman architecture, but got certain influences from Near East and used Greek cross plan in church architecture. When the Church of San Vitale was built, Ravenna was under the control of Byzantine Empire, which is why San Vitale would be similar to the Byzantine architectures instead of having the same plan as other churches in Ravenna. The construction of Church of San Vitale, dedicated by Bishop Maximian in 547, was begun long before Maximians arrival at Ravenna, even before the city was recaptured from the Goths in 540. Construction of this church began under Bishop Ecclesius after King Theodorics death in 526. The person who funded this great project was a certain Julianus called Argentarius ie a banker, not a bishop (Lowden, 127). He provided more than 26000 gold coins to proceed with the work. San Vitale was built in honor of Saint Vitalis, who was martyred at Ravenna in the second century (Kleiner, 316). The raison dà ªtre of the Church of San Vitale was to hold the relics of Saint Vitalis. Vitalis was not as famous or important as other famous saints, such as St Lawrence, thus originally there was only one small cross-shaped martyrium chapel built for him at Ravenna. But now a new church was constructed for him. There is no reason found to explain why his relics grew to the importance of requiring a magnif icent new church. But according to one legend, he was the father of Gervasius and Protasius, two important Milanese saints, and all three of them are martyred in this church. This might be the reason why a church was specially built for St Vitalis (Lowden, 127). Its design is different from the sixth-century churches in Ravenna and was considered to be unlike any churches in Italy. It is not a basilica, but a central-planned church similar to the Justinians churches in Constantinople. The Church of San Vitale is a central-domed octagon extended by semi-circular bays, surrounded by an ambulatory and gallery, all covered in vault. The main source of light comes from the clerestory and there are windows on the side walls, too. The regularity and angularity suggested by the exterior is different from the interior, which is dominated by curves. There are seven curving exedras on the sides of the central space which the double arcades will lead the eye up to vaulted semi-domes, arches, and thence to the central dome. The lower part of the church was originally reverted with colored marbles, which most of them were lost through out the ages, and now parts of them were restored. The presbytery (the part of a cathedral or church east of the choir, in which the main altar is situated) was also covered with marble and costly opus sectile in a geometric pattern. In the middle level, the presbytery was covered with mosaics. The mosaics that decorate San Vitales choir and apse like the building itself, must be regarded as among the most climactic achievements of Byzantine art (Kleiner, 316). But the original decorative scheme for the upper surface of the main body of the church remains unknown (Lowden, 127). The most famous parts of the Church of San Vitale are the mosaics. The imperial panels in the church of S. Vitale at Ravenna are perhaps the most famous of all Byzantine mosaics (Treadgold, 708). Two panels face each other, one on each side of the apes. The left one was covered with mosaic Emperor Justinian and his Attendants and the right one was cover with mosaic Empress Theodora and her Attendants. Both the emperor and empress can be identified by the imperial purple robs they wear and halos behind their heads. The attendants who accompany Justinian parallel Christs twelve apostles. Therefore, the mosaic serves both political and religious reasons of the emperor. In the mosaic, the positions of the figures are important. They express the ranking of all figures (Treadgold, 708). Justinian is at the center, wearing purple robe and with a halo in order to distinguish from other dignitaries. At his left is Bishop Maximianus, the man responsible for San Vitales completion. Although the emperor appears to be slightly behind Maximianus, the large golden paten he carries overlaps the bishops arm. This symbolized by place and gesture, the imperial and churchly powers are in balance (Kleiner, 317). In these mosaics, classical elements of art mostly disappeared. For example, no shadows are presented, faces of figures are more stylized, and there is little naturalism. There is no background indicated. In the mosaic Emperor Justinian and his Attendants, the artists wanted viewers to think the procession is taking place in San Vitale, thus the emperor would appear forever as a participant in this church, symbolizing that he will be the proprietor of this church and the ruler of the empire forever (Treadgold, 708). This one of the most important reasons why San Vitale was built: to glorify the Emperor Justinian and the whole empire under his rule. The opposite wall of the apse contains the mosaic that depicts Empress Theodora, who was considered to be one of the most remarkable women of the middle Ages (Kleiner, 317). Similar to her husband, she is accompanied by her retinue. She carries Chalice, the golden cup with the wine (symbol of Christs blood) while Justinian carries the paten containing the bread (symbol of Christs body). While most parts of the Theodora mosaic exhibit the same style as the Justinian mosaic, the women are shown within a background. It depicts the scene that Empress Theodora was waiting to follow emperors procession, which shows she was outside the sanctuary at that time. The fact that she is outside in the courtyard showed that her rank was not quite equal to her husband (Treadgold, 708). Even though Justinian and Theodoras mosaics are considered to be one of the most important and most famous mosaics inside the Church of San Vitale, Justinian and Theodora never actually came to Ravenna or participate in any events, which mean those two panels are not the historical record of San Vitale. (Lowden, 134). So those two panels are built in order to ensure Emperor Justinians rule over Ravenna and glorify the whole empire under the rule of Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora. The Church of San Vitale is one of the most important architecture during Byzantine period. The plan of San Vitale is borrowed and used by constructions, such as the Palace Chapel of Charlemagne in Germany. All visitors would marvel at its intricate design and magnificent golden mosaics. But beauty is not everything San Vitale has; political and religious meanings also play a big role while Church of San Vitale is constructed. Work cited Kleiner, Fred. Gardners Art through the Ages: A Global History. Ohio: Wadsworth Publishing, 2009. Lowden, John. Early Christian Byzantine Art. London: Phaidon Press, 1997. Treadgold, Warren. Procopius and the Imperial Panels of San Vitale. The Art Bulletin. 79 (1997): 708-723 Lateral Line System in Fish: Structure and Function Lateral Line System in Fish: Structure and Function Introduction       The lateral line is a sensory system in fish and amphibians. It is made up of mechanoreceptors called neuromasts which are sensitive to water movement (Diaz et al. 2003). The lateral line system has an important role in the detection of stationary objects, navigation, prey detection, capture and in swimming in schools (Gelman et al. 2007). The receptor organ of the lateral line system is the neuromast. There are two types of neuromasts, canal neuromasts which are located in the intradermal canals, and the superficial neuromasts which are located in the intraepidermal canals. Canal neuromasts are able to detect water flow acceleration, while superficial or free neuromasts can detect velocity (Gelman et al. 2007). In some species like the American paddlefish (Polyodon spathula), the lateral line system has evolved into an electrosensory system (Modrell et al. 2011). This was accomplished by the specialization of hair cell receptors. These hair cell receptors in the lateral line system resemble the sensory hairs of insects. This may suggest that both derive from a common ancestral mechanosensory organ (Dambly-Chaudiere et al. 2003). This review paper will focus on the lateral line systems anatomy, function and its components. It will also consider the origin of the lateral line system, modifications of the lateral line and explore research gaps in the literature. Origin of the Lateral Line System A study undertaken by Robert H. Denison explained the origin of the lateral line system. The author explained that early vertebrates had a pore-canal system in the dermis which functioned as a primitive sensory system detecting water movement. Through embryology and comparative anatomy, it has been established that the inner ear is closely related to the lateral line system (Denison 1966). The inner ear and the lateral line are developed from ectodermal thickenings, called dorso-lateral placodes. These have a number of similarities, including receptors with sensory hairs, and are both innervated by fibers in the acoustico-lateral area of the brain (Denison 1966). Early vertebrate fossils revealed that the pore canal system which consists of canals that lie below the dermis, and pore canals which connect the canals that lie below the dermis to the surface. The pore canal system is present and developed in Osteostraci which is a group of ostracoderms. It is present in Heterostraci which is another group of ostracoderms and includes early vertebrates such as lungfishes and crossopterygians. As its presence is extensive, it is reasonable to suggest that the pore canal system was a primitive character in early vertebrates (Denison 1966). The author states that this relationship between the pore canal system and the lateral line was first recognized in Osteotraci. In transverse sections, canals that are located below the dermis in the pore canal system are difficult to be distinguished from a lateral line canal (Figure 1). Both of these canals have a narrow opening and a basal part which is separated by a horizontal septum into an outer part that is filled with mucus, and an inner part which consists of sensory cells and nerves (Denison 1966). Figure 1. The figure shows a transverse section of an ostcostracan. This depicts the similar structure of the lateral line canal (IOC) and a canal of the pore canal system (P). BL represents the basal layer, C is the canal which connects the mesh canal with the vascular canal. ML represents the middle layer, RC the vascular canal, SL the superficial layer and X represents the septum that separates the lateral line canal (Denison 1966). As the structure between these two systems is similar the author determined that the lateral line was derived from pore a canal system, and then became a specialized part of it and later remained there (Denison 1966). Structure of the Lateral Line System Organization of the Lateral Line The lateral line, consists of a row of small pores which lead into the underlying lateral line canal. In the head, the lateral line canal is separated into three canals, one passes forward and above the eye, another forward and below the eye and the other downward and below the jaw (Figure 2) (Parker 1904). These three canals have numerous pores and together with the lateral line canal, make the lateral line system. Epidermal structures called neuromasts form the peripheral area of the lateral line. Neuromasts consist of two types of cells, hair cells and supporting cells. Hair cells have an epidermal origin and each hair cell has one high kynocyle (5-10 ÃŽÂ ¼m) and 30 to 150 short stereocilia (2-3 ÃŽÂ ¼m). The number of hair cells in each neuromast depends on its size, and they can range from dozens to thousands. Hair cells can be oriented in two opposite directions with each hair cell surrounded by supporting cells. At the basal part of each hair cell, there are synaptic contacts with afferent and efferent nerve fibers. Afferent fibers, transmit signals to the neural centres of the lateral line and expand at the neuromast base. The regulation of hair cells is achieved by the action of efferent fibers (Jakubowski 1967). Figure 2. Diagram of the lateral line system. The lateral line canal is divided into 3 stems, one passes forward and above the eye, another forward and below the eye and the other downward and below the jaw. Black dots represent the location of the neuromasts on the skin surface. White dots on the brown line show the positions of the neuromasts in sub-epidermal lateral line canals (Yang et al. 2010). Stereocilia and kinocilium of hair cells are immersed into a cupula and are located above the surface of the sensory epithelium. The cupula is created by a gel-like media, which is secreted by non-receptor cells of the neuromast (Figure 3). There are two types of neuromasts, superficial or free neuromasts and canal neuromasts. Superficial neuromasts are located at the surface of the body and are affected by the environment. Superficial neuromasts are categorized into primary or paedomorphic neuromasts and secondary or neomorphic neuromasts. Canal neuromasts are primary neuromasts. These are found inside epidermal or bony canals and are located on the head or body of the fish (Coombs et al. 1992). Figure 3. Lateral line of fish. (a) The figure shows the basic structure of neuromasts and all its components. (b) Hair cell, depicting the innervation of afferent and efferent fibers (Dambly-Chaudiere et al. 2003). Superficial and Canal Neuromasts Superficial neuromasts are small and can be found in lampreys, teleost fishes and in some bony fishes. Superficial neuromasts are located on the head and the body and in some fish in the caudal fin (Cernuda et al. 1996). They have a cylindrical cupula and a round base with a diameter that can seldom reach 100 ÃŽÂ ¼km. The number of hair cells is small, from several dozens to several hundred (Cernuda et al. 1996). In canal neuromasts, the sensory area is situated at the bottom of the canal below the skin. Canal neuromasts have a large range in size, shape and orientation within the canal. Some species have narrow canals and the neuromast can be found in a local constriction with the long axis running parallel to the canal axis. Some other fishes have neuromasts which are found in wide canals and have a different shape. Canal neuromasts allow the efficient detection of pressure differentials, which are created by the current movement across the canal pores (Cernuda et al. 1996). Lateral Line System Function The lateral line system has often been described as touch at a distance. This is due to the lateral line function being similar to the senses of touch and hearing (Coombs et al. 2006). The earliest hypothesis about the function of the lateral line was that it secretes mucus to cover the body. Several years later, it was determined that the lateral line is used to detect water current and stimuli from moving objects (Bleckmann et al. 1993). Fish can sense water movements ranging from large-scale currents to small disturbances caused by plankton. This is due to the superficial neuromasts which are able to respond to very weak water currents, with speeds from 0.03 mm/s and higher. Canal neuromasts can respond to current speeds from 0.3 to 20 mm/s (Bleckmann et al. 1993). The lateral line has functions in schooling, prey detection, spawning, rheotaxis (which is a form of taxis when fish face an ongoing current), courtship and station holding (Coombs et al. 2006). It is thought that the lateral line system can create hydrodynamic images of the surrounding area. This can be achieved by detecting moving and stationary objects in active and passive ways. Active hydrodynamic imaging is similar to the echolocation of objects that is observed in dolphins. Here, fish produce a flow field around their body, which helps them in detecting distortions in their flow field. This is observed in blind cavefishes, which rely on this mechanism to explore their surroundings. For example, they are able to differentiate between structures that differ by even 1 mm (Coombs et al. 2006). Passive hydrodynamic imaging can be carried out for moving and stationary bodies. This is achieved by detecting currents that are generated by other moving bodies such as other fish or the movement of stationary objects such as rocks in a stream (Coombs et al. 2006). Lateral Line Information Processing Lateral line information is processed in all regions of the brain (Figure 4). The information is provided by afferent nerve fibres and is sent to the brain via the lateral line nerves that enter the ipsilateral brainstem and terminate in the medial octavolateralis nucleus (MON). Main primary lateral line projections reach the ipsilateral cerebellar granular eminence while the second order of projections from the medial octavolateralis nucleus terminate in the lateral compartment of the torus semicircularis and in the deep layers of the optic tectum. The final pathway for information processing is the relay of information from the midbrain to different diencephalic nuclei (Bleckmann 2008). Figure 4. This figure depicts the pathway of information processing. MON represents the medial octavolateralis nucleus, CCe represents the Corpus cerebelli, Ll is the hypothalamic inferior lobe, Flo is the facial lobe, ON is the olfactory lobe, PGl represents the lateral preglomerular nucleus, PE is the pre eminential nucleus, TSvl is the Ventro lateral nucleus of torus semicircularis (Bleckmann 2008). Lateral Line Modifications The lateral line system of elasmobranchs is different to that of teleost fish. Elasmobranchs have superficial neuromasts and two morphological classes of sub-epidermal canals. Elasmobranch canals have skin pores that allow direct contact with the surrounding water. They may also have absent skin pores which prevent the contact of canal fluid with the external environment. In teleost fish, hydrodynamic pressure differences at the skin pores cause fluid motion. This results in pored canal neuromasts being able to cipher the acceleration of external water flow near the skin, and induce behaviours such as hydrodynamic imaging, detection of prey and schooling. In elasmobranch fishes, other than prey detection the function of the lateral line pores and their neurophysical response is not yet known (Maruska and Tricas 2004). Sharks and batoids have non-pored canals which are located on the ventral body surface, rostrum and around the mouth (Figure 5). The absence of skin pores demonstrates that localized weak hydrodynamic flow which causes pressure differences will not produce canal fluid motion directly, as it occurs in the pored canal systems (Maruska and Tricas 2004). Figure 5. Lateral line canal system on the dorsal (D) and ventral (V) surface of the Atlantic stingray, Dasyatis Sabina. Solid lines indicate neuromast-free tubules which terminate in pores. The other lines indicate canal sections which consist of innervated neuromasts (Maruska and Tricas 2004). A hypothesis was developed to explain the function of non-pored canals in elasmobranch fishes. The hypothesis explains that the non-pored canals of stingrays which are located on the ventral surface, function as tactile receptors that aids in the localization and capture of small benthic prey. The hypothesis explains that direct coupling of the skin and canal fluid should result in an increase in sensitivity to the velocity of skin movement, which would mean that primary afferents that innervate neuromasts would show characteristics consistent with detectors of velocity. The hypothesis also states that without direction to the external environment, non-pored canals will have lower sensitivity to water motion in comparison to tactile stimulation (Maruska and Tricas 2004). A study done by Karen P. Maruska and Timothy C. Tricas (2004) determined that pored hyomandibular canals on the stingrays dorsal surface are different in terms of primary afferent response from the non-pored hyomandibular canals on the ventral surface. They expressed that primary afferents from the dorsal pored canals respond as hydrodynamic acceleration detectors of water disturbances which are mainly caused by predators. Ventral non-pored canals are sensitive to small movements of the skin, and primary afferents encode the velocity of fluid induced in the canal by these stimuli. The results supported their main hypothesis and demonstrate the function of the lateral line in elasmobranchs in prey detection (Maruska and Tricas 2004). Research Gaps At present, we have a good understanding of how the brain stem and the midbrain respond to different types of stimuli for example, a change in water flow or movement of an object. However, we know nothing about information processing in the tectum opticum which forms the roof of the midbrain and functions as the primary visual center. In amphibians the tectum opticum, a lateral line map is created which helps in registering with a visual and an electrosensory map, which together represent the external area (Parker 1904). Furthermore, we have no information on how lateral line information is processed in cerebellum, which is a brain structure that is involved in motor control and also has a role in cognition. Additionally, little is known about the process of adaptation in the lateral line pathway and how the efferent pathway in the electrosensory lateral line functions in gaining control which is thought to apply in the mechanosensory line (Parker 1904). There is not a lot of information on the internal and chemical structure of the cupula, and how the cupula is attached to the base of the neuromast. The role of the lateral line in schooling is poorly understood. In elasmobranch fishes, other than prey detection the function of the lateral line pores and their neurophysical response has not been fully researched. Conclusion The lateral line system which is a sensory system in fish and amphibians has various functions in schooling, navigation, and prey detection. Through paleontology, comparative anatomy and embryology it was demonstrated that there is a phylogenetic connection between the pore canal system in the dermis of early vertebrates and the lateral line. Moreover, through the action of neuromasts and hydrodynamic imaging, the fish is able to detect its surrounding environment. Lastly, there are some research gaps regarding on how lateral line information is processed in certain parts of the brain. Literature Cited: Bleckmann, H. and Zelick, R. (1993) The Responses of Peripheral and Central Mechanosensory Lateral Line Units of Weakly Electric Fish to Moving-Objects. Journal of Comparative Physiology A-Sensory Neural and Behavioral Physiology, 172 (1), pp. 115-128. Bleckmann, H. (2008) Peripheral and central processing of lateral line information. Journal of Comparative Physiology A-Neuroethology Sensory Neural and Behavioral Physiology, 194 (2), pp. 145-158. Cernuda Cernuda, R. and Garcia Fernandez, J. (1996) Structural diversity of the ordinary and specialized lateral line organs. Microscopy Research and Technique, 34 (4), pp. 302-312 Coombs, S., Jansenn, J. and Montgomery, J. (1992) Functional and Evolutionary Implications of Peripheral Diversity in Lateral Line Systems. Coombs, S. and van Netten, S. (2006) The Hydrodynamics and Structural Mechanics of the Lateral Line System. Fish Biomechanics, 23, pp. 103-139. Dambly-Chaudiere, C., Sapede, D., Soubiran, F., Decorde, K., Gompel, N. and Ghysen, A. (2003) The lateral line of zebrafish: a model system for the analysis of morphogenesis and neural development in vertebrates. Biology of the Cell, 95 (9), pp. 579-587. Denison, R. (1966) Origin of Lateral-Line Sensory System. American Zoologist, 6 (3), pp. 369-371. Diaz, J., Prie-Granie, M., Kentouri, M., Varsamos, S. and Connes, R. (2003) Development of the lateral line system in the sea bass. Journal of Fish Biology, 62 (1), pp. 24-40. Gelman, S., Ayali, A., Tytell, E.D. and Cohen, A.H. (2007) Larval lampreys possess a functional lateral line system. Journal of Comparative Physiology A-Neuroethology Sensory Neural and Behavioral Physiology, 193 (2), pp. 271-277. JAKUBOWSKI, M. (1967) Cutaneous Sense Organs of Fishes .7. Structure of System of Lateral-Line Canal Organs in Percidae. Acta Biologica Cracoviensia Series Zoologia, 10 (1), pp. 69-81. Maruska, K. and Tricas, T. (2004) Test of the mechanotactile hypothesis: neuromast morphology and response dynamics of mechanosensory lateral line primary afferents in the stingray. Journal of Experimental Biology, 207 (20), pp. 3463-3476. Modrell, M.S., Bemis, W.E., Northcutt, R.G., Davis, M.C. and Baker, C.V.H. (2011) Electrosensory ampullary organs are derived from lateral line placodes in bony fishes. Nature Communications, 2, pp. 496. Parker G.H (1904) Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries. 24th edition. Washington Government Printing Office, pp 180-204 Yang, Y., Nguyen, N., Chen, N., Lockwood, M., Tucker, C., Hu, H., Bleckmann, H., Liu, C. and Jones, D.L. (2010) Artificial lateral line with biomimetic neuromasts to emulate fish sensing. Bioinspiration Biomimetics, 5 (1), pp. 016001. Theories of Communication: Summary and Analysis Theories of Communication: Summary and Analysis VOTE DAVID TOMIBEBI COURSE TITLE: THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS INTRODUCTION No matter what language we speak, when we hear a sentence we try to get the logical meaning and interpretation (inference). We also try to figure out the exact truth of what the other person or people are saying because it is also believed that there is more to conversation then just the word to word facts. There is a consistent way our conversation should work and we use our knowledge of those rules to go beyond what is actually said and figure out what they actually mean. Therefore, in analyzing this conversation we are going to use those principles such as the cooperative principle and this also is sub-divided or break down into four main maxims which are, the maxim of quality, the maxim of manner, the maxim of relevance and the maxim of quantity Paul Grice (1960). These principles act as guides to our conversations at all times. Most people use it without really knowing that they are using it. Therefore in analyzing this conversation, theories from experts like Paul Grice, Hymes and Wilson (see Bill Clark) are used to explain. In same vein this brief is a communication process via a sign post and it is governed by the maxim of truthfulness and the widespread of the use of pragmatics language to illustrate various processes that leads to relevance SITUATION The speaking Grid is a tool use in the act of interpreting the communication processes; it was developed by Hymes with the acronym S.P.E.A.K.I.N.G which stands for setting and scene, participant, end, act of sequence, key, instrumentalities, norm and genre. (Hymes, 1974 p55-62) In that, the speaking grid is used to analyze the sign post above. SETTING AND SCENE This sign post was spotted on the working site of a car company (mechanical shop) here in the UK Luton. It is believed that the site is marked private and only workers or customers of the said establishment are allowed to park their cars at the place with an order of sanction that follows for none customers Again different cultures have different demands and expectations from individual behaviors in that people coming from a culture were sign post are not used will surely not acknowledge the sign post. Therefore, it all boils down to the psychological state of mind of the individual. PARTICIPANT The participant here are the customers and none customers. It is so because the sign post explicitly direct the information to those two set of audience ENDS The sign post ends with the instruction which is believed to be a sanction for none customers(Toad) although the word is misspell(Towed) but the message is obviously clear to the none customers of the possible action that will be taken against him or her. ACT SEQUENCE The sign post start with the word â€Å"Private† which could meaning a lot of things to different people. But could be understood through the act of inference to meaning private for the purpose of been so for its customers only. KEY This usually refers to the tone of the conversation between peoples but in the post the major tone there is that of the sanction which state that all other will be toad (towed) INSTRUMENTALITY The post was written in two broad forms which could explain perfectly the intention of the communicator. The first language used was a causal language then followed by the tone of sanction for by passers. NORMS There are social and legal rule guiding people’s actions and behavior in the every society. In that the post explicitly indicate that it is for private and at such others will be towed (toad) that is, others not authorize to park there. GENRE This is an artistic work in which scene of everyday life form the subject matter. Therefore, it is most related to linguistic and pragmatic features. LINGUISTIC AND PRAGMATIC FEATURES Linguistically the words written on the sign post might look ambiguous and incorrect because the sign private customer parking only ignoring the misspell word of toad could mean a lot of things to different people because there are so many private life and could also mean private car park which could mean not for public use. Therefore, linguistically what the sign post might be meaning is that customer parking only which can be interpreted that customers are not allowed to do any other thing except parking and this could meaning parking themselves and not cars But it is our knowledge of the word that tells us the actual meaning and by doing so we infer into the contextual meaning by way of reasoning in other to deduce the actual meaning of private car parking Secondly, the word â€Å"ALL OTHERS WILL BE TOAD† which could mean that all other that are not customers could be towed or sometime else could happen to their car. Therefore, that leads to our pragmatic understanding of words as they appear to us. PRAGMATIC MEANING Pragmatically the sign clearly illustrates the under determinacy of the message by the linguistic meaning of the communicative act and people are able to infer meaning to the sign assuming that the word â€Å"ALL OTHERS† could be meaning cars and nothing something else The main idea of pragmatic theory is to analyze issues that affect the interpretation of utterances relating to the knowledge behind the linguistic meaning of the sentence. In that, this analysis shows that human communication is more than just coding and decoding of words and this could be seen from the illustration from of the word â€Å"ALL OTHERS WILL BE TOAD†. It is believed that from the reasoning we are able to infer meaning into the word and extracting the exact meaning the sentence is trying to portray or give. Therefore, in trying to encode as much as possible into linguistic message we rather tend to encode little as necessary for the people who sees the text or sign to figure out the exact message even though it is not in the language. The sign post starts with the word â€Å"Private† and went on to say â€Å"customer parking only and all others will be toad† in that the sign post could be said not to be informative enough for people that might intend parking their cars there will not do so. Although, the sign post may have want to explain the post in this form† Private Customer Car Parking Only, All Other Cars Will Be Towed† in that there seems to be a gap between the decontextualized meaning of the sign post and the ideas expressed by the words. Yule (1996:22) Going by that, it is only by inference (reasoning) that people that are non customer could infer into what the sign post actually mean and act accordingly to avoid sanctions. Finally the â€Å"TOAD† illustrate the point of human communication that the other creature cannot do; for instance towing and toad despite the misspell one is able to code the actual meaning by inferring into the sign post (language) and that is why Hacket(2000) believes strongly on ability of human communication that really distinguishes him from other primate DIRECT COMMUNICATION From the post it is assume that the word â€Å"private customer parking only† could be said to send a straight message to non customers and at such non customers should referring from parking their cars there. The direct communication in the post is actually what the other party really looks at and forgetting the other offensive part that somehow is communicated indirectly. The extraction of the first part meaning is enough for none customers to obey. INDIRECT COMMUNICATION Indirect communication is said to occur when the speaker deviates from the actual meaning or spelling of a particular word or expression. For instance, the post makes some illustrations that clearly show the intention of the communicator that he is trying to conceal things and that could be seen in the spelling of the word Toad instead of Towed and there by miss leading the reader. Although, some may argue that the whole text or sign post is communicated indirectly starting from the very beginning with the word â€Å"Private† to the end which is Toad because the word Customer Parking only do not really communicate directly whether customers are allowed to park their cars there in that it could still mean that the only thing allowed to do there is for customers to park their self in one place without doing anything else. Therefore, it is the use of inference that the true meaning of what the sign post is trying to communicate could really be attained and achieved. THEORIES AND THE ANALYSIS OF THE EXAMPLES Different theories are used in explaining the communication process and some of them include the following The accommodation theory The relevance theory The cooperative theory (Grice maxims) ACCOMMODATION THEORY The accommodation theory is essentially a way in which individuals communicates in social groups with language terms or codes peculiar to them and this sometimes could be as a result of cultural variation and sometimes in other for you to communicate effectively you need to be approved of by that group RELEVANCE THEORY The relevant theory stipulates that there are some information that are worth having while some are not and it is our cognition that is directed toward the processing of the information For instance, the work PRIVATE CUSTOMER PARKING ONLY could mean different things to different people but being that the situation at which the information is posted people tend to get the right meaning and ignoring the other aspect that could not mean anything to them Communication can be defined as the verbal exchange of thoughts and ideas. In that respect, the communication we will be analyzing falls into that category because thoughts and idea were in exchange either explicitly or not. One of the major characteristics of communication is the use of inference(reasoning) and encoding and decoding to decipher what the speaker or writer intentions are or what he intended to say or what he is saying. Sometimes communication takes the form of monopoly in the sense that the communicator might not want the information to be explicit to the reader or receiver thereby making it looks one sided. But there are different reasons why communication can be monopolize for instance the intention of the communicator might be different with what the receiver already know or want and this could be seen in the sign post illustration above which states â€Å"all others will be toad† Going by that, inferential reasoning in communication can be explained using the Grice maxim of communication which is the cooperative principle (1975) to illustrate how communication is perceived THE MAXIM OF QUALITY The maxim of quality is always regarded as one of the fundamental of communications principles, according to Grice because it is also believed that when we communicate we expect each other to say things that we believed to be true and relevant to the discussion (Grice 1989:27) Therefore, the illustration below clearly shows that the communicative style deviate from what could be seen as a cooperative act due to the fact that the post want the reader to infer and deduce into its meaning in other to know exactly what it meant by Toad Customer parking only All others will be toad The maxim of quality says that, in communication the intention of the communicator should be plain and genuine and there should be no form of ambiguity so as to confuse the other party. Therefore the excerpt above in the statement Remember that the maxim of quality says Do not say that for which you believe to be false( truthfulness) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence In that maxim of quality is with the speaker over contribution as to what he wants to explain either directly or indirectly which to some extent is regarded as the truthfulness in the act of communication (Grice 1967 p27) The maxim of quality explains things in their real sense and did not try to conceal information so as to deceive the listener. Although communication involve the use of some forms of inference (reasoning) to encode and decode meaning out of conversation, but the maxim of quality is very explicitly when it comes to communication.(Grice 1989 p 371) even thou it was the speaker alone that is mostly concerned. THE MAXIM OF QUANTITY The maxim of quantity as the name is all about giving information with extra ways of adding to the information. For instance, PRIVATE CUSTOMER PARKING ONLY, that piece of information is enough to make the reader understand and get meaning out of the message but rather it went further to add ALL OTHERS WILL BE TOAD. THE MAXIM OF MANNER This is a situation where the speaker makes precise and concise decision without the listener. According to the post above, there seems to be a contradiction deviating from the maxim of manner by adding other talks that are not relevant to the discussion or topic in question. THE MAXIM OF RELATION This maxim stipulates that a partner contribution to the process of communication should be appropriate to the information received. The post begins its statement with the word Private and it clearly shows that it is not open to any other form of relationship except to its customers only Therefore, â€Å"ALL OTHER WILL BE TOAD† contradicts the earlier information of customer parking only with a misspell of the word Towering to Toad. Also the word Toad could be argued according to Grice not to be relevant to the post of customers parking only. RELEVANCE THEORY AND THE CONCEPT OF TRUTH The Grice maxim of truthfulness was part of what might be called an inferential model of human communication, although, relevance is used in technical sense which is not meant to capture any of the ordinary sense of word. Relevance is the property of input to truth in other words; information’s are more relevant when they lead to truth. Although from the relevance perspective it those not really matter if the speaker speaks the truth or not because what is of most concern to relevance is the cognition process. The relevance is more concern about the integration to general knowledge of cognition effect rather than what is actually said or written in the post like the one above with the misspell of Towed as Toad. Dejura is a key element in relevance Looking closely to how we communicate it shows that most often we communicate things that are not true, for instance the sign post trying to communicate the word All Others Will Be Towed is not true because if a police car is parked in that area certainly nothing will be done to that car. But in Grice’s term this is a violation of the maxim of quality but to the relevance theory it is not a violation because people don’t tend to communicate things that are true but rather communicate things that are relevant. According to the definition of relevance it is only those positive improvement to the believe system are worth having. Therefore, in this regard the relevance theory seems to be superior over the Grice’s theory ILLUSTRATION An utterance has two immediate effects and this indicate that the speaker has something to communicate and it determine an order of accessibility in which the interpretability will occur to the hearer. There is always that assumption that we are entitled to presume that the communicator is aiming to make their contribution one that is real and true and one for which he or she has an adequate evidence about PRIVATE 1 CUSTOMER PARKING ONLY 2 ALL OTHERS WILL BE TOAD A standard semantic analysis of the second part of the sign post indicates the following that the parking space provided is for customer only and all others will be charged accordingly. It is obvious that the sign post means something more than what it explains and in that it is expected that the reader uses some inference (reasoning) to decipher the exact meaning of the speaker. Therefore, the sign post with the inscription PRIVATE CUSTOMER PARKING ONLY is immediately flowered by the supporting sign that â€Å"ALL OTHERS WILL BE TOAD† in other words it is very explicit that what the sign post require is for only customers to parking at their own risk and may probable be charged for parking. Walliam and Spencer (1798). This is simply where inferential thinking takes place and could not be argued that this follows the laws of relevance because the law of relevance stipulates that the amount of information recovered should be equal to the one expected or given out. Again, it entails decoding and encoding which is also an important aspect of inference CONCLUSION Therefore, this piece of work achieved in the demonstration of analyzing and describes the intent of communication process from the point of view of relevance theory, cooperative theory and pragmatic and linguistic features of communication. In other word the theories explains how human uses cognition and how human infer into the meaning of various communication process. Therefore, the theories explain the whole sign post beginning with the speaking Grid, linguistic and pragmatic feature of language communication, brief explanation of the accommodation theory, the cooperative principles of communication with explanations on the Grice maxims, direct and indirect communication and the relevance theory REFERENCES Blackemore, D. (1987) sematic contrains on relevance. Blackwell, oxford Blackemore, D. (1992) understanding utterances. Blackwell, oxford Davis, S (ed.)(1991) pragmantics: a reader. Oup, oxford Clark, B. (1993). Relevance and â€Å"pseudo-imperatives†. Linguistics and philosophy, 16(1), 79-121. Clark, B. (1993). Relevance and â€Å"pseudo-imperatives†. Linguistics and philosophy, 16(1), 79-121. Grice, H. P. (1981). Presupposition and conversational implicature. Radical pragmatics, 183-198 Grice, H. P. (2013). 4. logic and conversation. The Semantics-Pragmatics Boundary in Philosophy, 47. Hymes, D.H. (1974). Ways of speaking. In R. Bauman J. Sherzer (Eds.),Explorations in the ethnography of speaking(pp. 433-452). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hymes, D.H. (Ed.). (1974).  Studies in the history of linguistics: Traditions and paradigms. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Lewis, D. (1979). Scorekeeping in a language game. Journal of philosophical logic, 8(1), 339-359 Lewis, D. (1973). Causation. The journal of philosophy, 556-567. Sperber, D and Wilson, D (1986). Relevance: communication and cognition. Oxford: Blackwell and Cambridge: Harvard University press. Ã…Â ½egarac, V., Clark, B. (1999). Phatic interpretations and phatic communication. Journal of Linguistics, 35(02), 321-346.